Pantheistic Evolution

Chapter IV.—Pantheistic Evolution

Art. I.—Statement of Various Views.

I.—General Idea.

According to this doctrine, the Principle of all things does not exist of itself, is not eternal, nor really distinct from the world, but is a “Becoming,” a constant evolution which, determining itself, constitutes the universe of things. God is Creative Evolution!

In this system of absolute evolution there is a negative and a positive element.

(A) Negative element.

1° Denial of existence of God the Creator. The first principle is an immanent tendency to development, and there is no need of a transcendent Creator.

2° Denial of the order of Supernatural truth and life. Human reason is a participation of the immanent principle. There is no need of supernatural intervention.

3° Denial of the possibility of miracles. The immanent principle is not really or essentially distinct from the universe, and therefore cannot intervene.

(B) Positive element.

All religious phenomena are explicable by the development of the religious sense. Religious truth changes as man changes.

II.—Empirical Evolution, i.e., Monism.

Matter is the principle of all things; from matter come life and rationality.

Haeckel in his Die Welträtsel lays down the general and the religious philosophy of Monism.

(A) General Philosophy.

There is nothing above or beyond phenomena.

(a) Indirect proof is drawn from the Conservation of Energy. It is claimed that this physical and chemical principle would be rendered false if vegetative, sensitive and rational life had an influence on the physico-chemical order. Hence vegetative, sensitive and rational life are mere results or developments of material laws.

(b) A direct proof is drawn from resemblance between spiritual and material phenomena. For example, mutual affinity between hydrogen and oxygen is a rudimentary inclination, which, by development, leads to affinities in higher organisms.

(B) Religious Philosophy.

(a) Negative part. Denial of the Supernatural order.

(b) Positive part. Science can satisfy the needs of speculative reason, and will later on be able to satisfy the needs of the human heart. Until then, religion is useful! Positive religion consists in the cultivation of the true, the beautiful, the good. Christianity, based on the Supernatural, is not true. Art as such does not belong to Christianity. The good in Christianity consists in observance of the precepts of the Natural Law, and is therefore independent of Christianity. The true, the beautiful, the good constitute respectively Science, Art and Sociology. Education should be entirely secular.

III.—Idealistic Evolution.

The supporters were Spinoza, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. Zeller and Fischer have written the history of this system. In Germany, Baur, Ewald, Reuss, Knobel and Wellhausen have applied the principles to Hermeneutics. In France, Renan and Loisy wrote from the standpoint of Hegelianism.

In this system the Principle of development is no longer matter, but an idealistic principle named the Absolute. In human reason the Absolute became conscious of itself. If the history of Idealistic Evolution be traced backwards, the germ of the system will be found in Gnosticism.

1° Gnosticism

God does not act directly upon the world, but acts through æons sprung from Him. Æons emanate from the Divine Substance. A demiurge made spirit, but associated matter with spirit. Hence a spirit (Christ) superior to the demiurge came to reconcile the world to God.

2° Pantheism of Spinoza.

His views are found in his Tractatus Theologico politicus and in his Ethica.

(a) Theory of Substance.

The “Universal” of the mind has an objective existence. Thus extreme realism leads to Pantheism. There is only one Substance. Substance is not merely “being subsisting of itself” (ens per se subsistens), but “being subsisting from itself” (ens a se subsistens). Substance is therefore uncreated, eternal, i.e., God.

(b) Theory of Knowledge.

The human mind has a natural intuition of the Divine essence. Hence no need of a Supernatural order. This Ontologism of Spinoza is found also in works of Malebranche, and to some extent in those of Rosmini.

(c) Theory of Happiness.

The love of the human mind for God is a part of the infinite love whereby God loves himself. Personal immortality is therefore impossible.

3° Pantheism of Fichte (1762-1814).

The pantheism of Fichte is derived partly from Kant and partly from Spinoza. Fichte very justly found a difficulty in applying the subjective categories of Kant to objective phenomena. Why should reason, he asked, apply to certain phenomena the category of causality rather than some other category, e.g., substance? Must it not be from objective considerations perceived in the phenomena and how therefore can the category of causality be purely subjective? Moreover Fichte observed that in the Kantian system the objective reality of those things perceived by the sense (i.e., their mere existence, as according to Kant extension, duration, etc, are subjective) is taken for granted. Fichte laid down the following principles:

(1) We have knowledge only of our conscious states.

(2) We objectify the laws by which our activity is limited and call the limitation matter.

(3) So-called higher truths, e.g., existence of God, are purely subjective ideas.

Fichte taught that the ego and non-ego mutually determine each other. He endeavoured to span the gulf between the ego and the non-ego by distinguishing in the subject a twofold ego—one finite and empirical, the other transcendent. The transcendent ego is something real and ideal, viz., “practical reason of human society.” He allowed that the non-ego may be a nonentity.

The critic may ask: may not the ego be also a nonentity? Thus Fichte’s earlier system ends in nihilism. Fichte taught later the reality of the ego and the non-ego, and the identity of both, i.e., an absolute subject-object. Hence whatever we experience within ourselves, or whatever we see without are both alike manifestations of one and the same absolute mind, i.e., of the Deity—not merely creations of His power, but actual modifications of His essence.

As an instance showing how difficulties arise from the application to God of human attributes in their univocal and not in their analogous sense, Fichte in Critica cujuslibet Revelationis (Opera V.) writes: “The living God is Humanity itself. I shrink from a religious conception which regards God as a personal being … a personal God would be as a percipient subject limited by the object known, and thus God would not be infinite.” In Catholic philosophy the attribute of personality is applied to God only in an analogous sense.

4° Pantheism of Schelling (1776-1841).

Schelling stresses the error in Fichte’s teaching by pointing out that the transcendent ego cannot produce the non-ego, i.e., the object. Ego and non-ego are correlative. Both presuppose the absolute. Both are one and the same essence running parallel to each other. Hence the philosophy of nature and the philosophy of spirit, both having their root in the Absolute.

In Schelling’s system the infinite mind (absolute) passes through various forms of objective and unconscious development as seen in matter, motion, organism and attains to a state of self-consciousness in sensation, reflection, freedom and is carried by practical movement (individuality, society, history) to the highest point of self realisation—Art. Herein is the unity of ideal and real. It is clear that all difference between God and the universe is lost in this system. There is one enormous chain of necessity.

Schelling tried later to modify his pantheistic views by writing what he named Positive Philosophy. He found in Christianity the same threefold movement which runs through the whole system.

First Movement. Catholicism: religion of Peter, objective in its nature.

Second Movement. Protestantism: religion of Paul, which appeals to subjective consciousness.

Third Movement. Perfect Religion: religion of John: union of all in love.

Schelling’s system is founded:

(1) Upon an illusion—the process of mental generalisation is made into a real and essential principle of things themselves.

(2) Upon a paralogism. Order of knowledge and order of existence are confounded.

(3) Upon an exaggeration. The harmony which exists between intelligence and reality is made into an identity.

(4) Upon an hypothesis. It is a gratuitous supposition to place all truth in the reason and thus to make reason equal to God.

Note the development of these systems:

Spinoza	Kant
Pantheistic Ontologism	Agnostic Subjectivism
Intuition of God	Negation of Intuition

↓

Fichte — Identity of Ego and Non-Ego

↓

Schelling — The Absolute becomes the Universe.

5° Pantheism of Hegel (1770-1831).

The absolute with Hegel is not infinite substance as with Spinoza, nor the infinite subject as with Fichte, nor the infinite mind as with Schelling: Hegel’s Absolute is a perpetual process, an eternal thinking without beginning and without end.

According to Hegel there are three movements of the logical process:

I.—Bare thought. Hence logic with its (1) doctrine of being; (2) doctrine of essence; (3) doctrine of notion.

II.—Thought externalising itself. Hence philosophy of nature; (1) of mechanics; (2) of physics; (3) of organism.

III.—Thought returning to itself. Hence philosophy of mind (1) subjective (anthropology, psychology, will); (2) objective (jurisprudence, morals, politics); (3) absolute (art, religion, philosophy).

Hegel’s teaching turns upon two fundamental points: (a) the unity of contradictories and (b) identity of being and thought.

(A) Hegel’s criticism of Schelling.

Hegel judged rightly that the Absolute of Schelling explains nothing. Transition from unity of the Absolute to multiplicity of phenomena is not explained in Schelling’s scheme. Hegel proceeds to explain how multiplicity of phenomena comes logically and necessarily from primitive unity, and his explanation is summed up in the statement: “The Absolute is nothing else than the process of universal becoming and especially the ideal process.”

(B) Logic and Metaphysics of Hegel.

Spirit is better known than matter. We have an immediate cognition of spirit but not of matter. Hence in the development of spirit and of thought, not in development of matter, is found the exemplar and cause of all phenomena. Hegel identifies logic and metaphysics.

How does development of ideas proceed? The first idea is that of universal being. But universal being is at the same time non-being because indeterminate. Hence being is non-being, and from this contradiction comes logically and necessarily the “becoming”—the synthesis by which are reconciled thesis and antithesis, i.e., being and non-being. Being becomes nature when it externates itself, and becomes spirit when by the help of consciousness it makes itself the object of its thought. Thus the principle of the identity of contradictories is the law of higher reason and reality, whereas the classical principle of contradiction is the law only of lower reason, which makes use of abstract and static ideas.

(C) Hegel’s Philosophy of Nature.

The process of “becoming” when not as yet conscious of itself is matter in which attraction and repulsion are opposed. From matter come vegetative, sensitive and finally rational life.

(D) Hegel’s Philosophy of Spirit and Religion.

The subjective or individual spirit was the first appearance of spiritual life in men of primitive times.

The objective or social spirit appeared later in history. The social spirit made legitimate the penalty of death, indissolubility of the marriage bond, waging of just wars, etc. The Greeks in their day led the process of evolution. They were succeeded by the Romans, and now there is a “people chosen by God.” (Surely Chauvinism gone mad!)

The absolute spirit guides development of social from individual spirit. Absolute spirit is true spiritual life and appears in three forms—Art, Religion and Philosophy. Art appeared first and its development is in accordance with the degree in which matter is eliminated. Hence come, in the ascending scale, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music and Poetry.

Religion is the antithesis of Art. Art deals with that which is material, Religion with the spiritual. In the East, Religion ignored material things. In Greece, Religion became a species of humanism. Finally, Christianity is the synthesis of Oriental and Grecian inspiration, inasmuch as the object of Christian worship is a God-man.

Philosophy (speculative) is the synthesis of Art and Religion. Antithesis between Sophists and Socrates led to Platonism. Antithesis between Plato and Aristotle led to the emanation theory of Plotinus. Antithesis between Greek philosophy and Christianity was synthesised by St. Augustine according to Plato’s ideas, and by St. Thomas according to the teaching of Aristotle. Antithesis between the Sensism of Hume and Spiritualism of Descartes was synthesised by Kant. Antithesis between Fichte and Schelling was synthesised by Hegel. Transcendentalism of Hegelian philosophy is so called in opposition to Empiricism. But from the standpoint of Theism, Hegel’s transcendentalism is identical with Immanentism.

Hegelian Philosophy and Christianity

(1) In Hegel’s judgment, from the dogma of creation the truth should be retained that the infinite exists with the finite. Hegel identifies infinite and finite in the process of “becoming”—a contradiction of lower but not of higher reason.

(2) From dogma of the Trinity the truth should be retained which suggests a threefold relationship—the subject knowing, the object known, and the knowledge itself, union of subject and object. Hence thesis, antithesis and synthesis. Günther (Semi-Rationalist) afterwards tried to demonstrate the doctrine of the Trinity, claiming that in God there must be Subject, Object (or Word), and the union of both, viz., the Holy Spirit.

(3) From the dogma of the Incarnation something should be retained. A most excellent form of spiritual life was manifested in Christ. But the miracles attributed to Him are not credible.

(4) In the doctrine of Redemption, God “emptied Himself” (exinanivit se) became man and afterwards by His passion and death drew all things to Himself. Here again is the fundamental law of Evolution in a contradiction which is fruitful.

Before proceeding to make a general critique on Pantheistic Evolution, it will be well to indicate the insuperable objections under which Hegelianism labours.

(1) Whence does the process, the great rhythm of existence proceed? Hegel pretends to have solved the whole secret of being, to have no realistic starting point; to begin with zero and deduce everything. This pretension is not fulfilled. The law of existence is still assumed and unaccounted for.

(2) There is hopeless confusion between the logical process of thinking and the real process of things themselves. The logical idea commencing with nothing simply by its own inward movement or self-unfolding creates the universe! We may in thought begin with the most abstract notion and go on adding attribute to attribute till we have placed the whole concrete universe before us. But this can never be put down as identical with the process of creation itself!

(3) The system of Hegel is utterly inconsistent with the results of psychology. Human freedom vanishes. Man is but the mirror of the Absolute, personality is sunk in the Infinite. Moral obligation perishes.

(4) In Hegelianism, the Deity is a process ever going on but never accomplished; nay, Divine consciousness is absolutely One with the advancing consciousness of mankind! The hope of immortality perishes, for death is but the return of the individual to the infinite. In the case of some of Hegel’s followers, Strauss, Bruno, Baur, Conradi, Feuerbach, Pantheism attains the point at which it ever tends, that, namely, in which it becomes fully synonymous with atheism. The New Testament is so rationalised upon that the whole of the historical portion is regarded as a designed mythology in which are conveyed to us important truths.

Art. II.—Critique on Pantheistic Evolution.

1° Denial of principle of Efficient Cause.

Pantheistic Evolution teaches that the principle of the universe is neither perfect of itself nor exists from eternity, but is evolved and passes from an imperfect state to one more and more perfect. In materialistic evolution, from brute matter come vegetative, sensitive and intellectual faculties. In idealistic evolution, from the idea of universal indeterminate being come all subsequent higher forms. Hence the more perfect comes from the less perfect—a conclusion utterly opposed to the principle of Causality, because the excess of perfection arises from no cause.

On the other hand, the principle of Efficient Causality claims that if being, life, intelligence, morality exist they postulate the existence of Necessary Being who possesses in an eminent way all the perfections visible in the universe.

2° Denial of principle of Final Cause.

Evolutionary process, in its materialistic form, is attributed to the material cause (i.e., matter). In matter is the potency of development. The process is at first unconscious and blind. Hence there is no place for final cause.

The process, in its idealistic form, supposes an unconscious tendency whereby lower forms develop into higher. But this tendency has no raison d’être.

3° Negation of the principle of Change.

Pantheistic Evolution identifies the subject of change and the change itself. Both are confounded in the process of “becoming.” Matter is physical energy or activity always in motion. Hence motion does not need an extrinsic First Mover, but is itself the principle of development of all things. But as already shewn the principle of change requires a subject distinct from the change, otherwise there would be as it were flowing without a fluid, flying without wings, thought without a thinking subject. The subject of change is matter which does not exist of itself, i.e., is contingent, and as such postulates finally an Infinite Cause for its creation. Evolution cannot be “Creative Evolution” which is Evolution without a cause, without an end, without a subject.

4° Denial of the principle of Reason of Being.

Pantheistic Evolution has not reason of being (raison d’être) either in another or in itself. Not in another, because according to the system there is no transcendent cause, nor in itself, because evolution is a transition from indetermination to determination (from power to act), and this transition has not in itself a reason of being. Indetermination is not determination, nor does it contain determination in any higher way. Power cannot of itself become act—there is need of the agency of an extrinsic cause, itself in act.

5° Denial of the principle of Substance.

Phenomena presuppose the noumenon, i.e., sensible qualities presuppose the substance in which they inhere. But advocates of Pantheistic Evolution maintain that there is no substance, but only a universal “becoming” without a subject. Material bodies are bundles of accidents (phenomena) bound together by some unknown law.

6° Denial of principles of Contradiction and Identity.

These principles postulate: being is being, being is not not-being. But again followers of Hegel teach that being and not-being are the same in the process of “becoming.” Truth is only relatively true; error is only relatively erroneous. The definition of truth is not the time-honoured “equation of intellect and object,” but “equation of mind and life,” and as life changes, so must truth.

Thus Pantheistic Evolution denies all the first principles of reason, and the four causes correlative to them. This process of evolution is without a subject, without an efficient cause, without an intentional end, and jumbles together as identical contraries and contradictories. Denial of first principles is admitted and defended on the ground that the law of contradiction is a law only of lower reason—a law which makes use of abstract and static ideas, and not a law of higher reason which regards reality as always changing and in which contradictories are the same.

In opposition to this tissue of absurdities, Catholic philosophy shews that the first cause of all things is subsistent Being, absolutely simple, immutable, infinite, essentially transcending the universe. God is seen in the mirror of sensible things by reflexion from the light of first principles. Pantheistic Evolution is an irrefragable proof per absurdum of the existence of God, who transcends the universe and is the source of the Supernatural Order.

Two objections drawn from views of Twentieth Century writers will be briefly considered.

1.—The first objection stated in syllogistic form runs as follows:

Major: That which is greater cannot be produced from that which is less.

Minor: But motion is greater than immobility.

Conclus.: Therefore motion cannot be produced from immobility, but exists of itself and is the principle of all things.

Answer: The difficulty arises from the ascription to God, who is infinite, of finite qualities without the necessary corrections. So-called antinomies of Kant and Spencer are due to the same error. Unchangeableness and immobility in God—the Unmoving Energeia of Aristotle—mean that God does not pass from power to act, from potentiality to achievement. He is Pure Act. Therefore His immobility is not the immobility of inertia, but the immobility of infinite perfection. This idea is enshrined in the words of the liturgical hymn:

Amor Patris Filiique Par Amborum, et utrique Compar et consimilis: Cuncta reples, cuncta foves, Astra regis, cælum moves, Permanens immobilis.

— Adam of St. Victor.

The answer to the syllogism is therefore clear:

The major is true.

The minor needs distinction. Motion is greater than the immobility of inertia, but not greater than the immobility of infinite perfection.

The same distinction is needed for the conclusion.

2.—Second objection.

Major: If an effect is produced extrinsic to the First Cause, there is more of being than existed before.

Minor: But by Creation created things were produced extrinsic to the First Cause.

Conclus.: Therefore after Creation, there was more of being than existed before, i.e., more is produced from less.

Answer: Since God who is plenitude of being contains in an infinitely higher way all the perfections of creatures actual or possible, and since creatures derive their perfections from Him, God and creatures are not more perfect than God alone. The Infinite is not made greater by the addition of the Finite. After Creation there are more beings, but not more being. St. Thomas writes: “Created goodness compared to Infinite Goodness is like a point compared to a line.” A point is position without magnitude, and the addition of such to a line does not increase its quantity. Students who grasp the teaching of St. Thomas do not make his teaching more perfect. The comprehension of the Saint’s marvellous and illuminating reasoning increases the number of the wise, but does not augment the sum of wisdom. St. Augustine writes: “If thou art without God, thou art less; if thou art with God, God is not greater. Not through thee is God greater, but thou without Him art less.”