T.J. WalsheApologeticsChapter 23

Confirmation from Internal Criteria and from an External Criterion Intrinsic to Religion — Part I: Human Aspirations and the Harmony of Christian Teaching

Section VII.—Confirmation of the Testimony of Christ

Chapter XXIII.—Confirmation from Internal Criteria, and from an External Criterion Intrinsic to Religion: Sublimity of Doctrine

§ 1.—Internal Criteria: Wonderful Fulfilment of Human Aspirations.

I.—The question involved.

If all legitimate aspirations, including the higher aspirations of our nature, are satisfied and more than satisfied by a religious system of doctrine, it is morally certain that such religious system comes from God. That men should reach this fulfilment by their natural powers is morally impossible. It is not sufficient to argue, as Modernists frequently argue, from the conformity of Christian doctrine with our natural aspirations—such an argument could only prove that Christ founded a perfect natural religion.

What are the principal aspirations of our nature?

(A) The religious and moral aspirations of human nature are as universal as humanity itself. Such aspirations are nothing else than the seed or source of natural virtues which have relation to man’s end and to the means necessary to attain it.

With regard to the last end of man we desire to know with certitude the existence of God, we hope for help from God necessary to attain future happiness, we desire to love God above all things, not only affectively but effectively, so that the whole of our moral life may be referred to our last end. It is impossible as St. Thomas writes (Iᵃ IIᵃᵉ q. 2, a. 8, q. 3, a. 1) for man to find complete happiness in any created good; for the object of the will is universal good, and universal good does not exist in any creature, but is found in God alone. In like manner there is an inclination to give to God the internal and external worship due to Him.

Regarding means necessary for the attainment of our last end, there are in human nature inclinations to moral virtues—prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance and virtues connected therewith.

(B) Natural desire of future life.¹

The existence of this desire is proved:

(a) From consciousness. The soul experiences a desire to live, even though the body is mortal.

(b) From reason. Desire follows cognition: “nil volitum nisi cognitum.” The cognition of the senses is particular being. But the intellect apprehends absolute being. Hence every being endowed with intellect desires immortality (Iᵃ q. 75, a. 6). Moreover, in this life, the wicked prosper, the virtuous suffer. We hope, therefore, for a future life, in which there will be manifestation of justice and of the moral order.

The most perfect natural knowledge of God fails to explain certain obscurities. We cannot clearly understand the compatibility of Divine attributes like Justice and Mercy, nor can we explain satisfactorily the existence of evil, moral and physical. Hence man wishes to see God, not only in the mirror of creatures, but intuitively and immediately. As already explained this natural desire is conditional and inefficacious—a velleity, the condition being, if God wishes to raise us to the supernatural vision of His essence.

Such are the principal aspirations—intellectual, moral, religious—of our nature.

II.—Imperfect solutions.

To the aforesaid aspirations an imperfect response is given: (a) by natural reason; (b) by philosophic systems; (c) by other religions.

(a) Natural reason cannot attain a firm, ready, accurate knowledge of the natural truths appertaining to religion. It can reach to certitude regarding the existence of God, but the essential attributes of God and the conditions of our future life remain obscure.

(b) Philosophic systems. Materialistic, pantheistic, positivist and agnostic systems are opposed to the higher aspirations of the soul.

Amongst spiritualistic systems, even those of Plato and Aristotle are not without manifest error concerning certain attributes of God.

Buddhism teaches nothing concerning God, and maintains that man is subjected to a series of metempsychosis, until he reaches perfection in “Nirvana.”

Brahmanism is a system of pantheism and idolatry.

Mahometanism contains true beliefs borrowed from Judaism and Christianity, e.g., existence of God, immortality of the soul, resurrection of the body. But its paradise is one of carnal and sensual delight.

Protestantism is hopelessly divided. Conservative Protestants hold Scripture to be the rule of faith. But since the rule is not complete, nor obvious, nor suited to settle doubts, innumerable sects have arisen. Liberal Protestants acknowledge no authority. They are Rationalists. Some deny even the Divinity of Christ.

III.—Catholic Solution.

Catholic teaching not only satisfies the natural aspirations of the soul, but exceeds them. Note the following table:

Natural Aspirations	Satisfied by
To know God	Christian Faith, Gift of Wisdom, Beatific vision.
To hope in God	Incarnation, Redemption, Eternal Glory.
To love God	Intimacy of Charity, Eucharistic Communion.
To internal and external worship	Sacrifice of the Mass, Sacraments, Prayer of the Church.
To virtue	Cardinal Christian virtues and virtues connected therewith.
To happiness	Christian beatitudes, Gifts and Fruits of the Holy Ghost, Peace and Joy.

1° To the aspiration to know God with certainty corresponds the doctrine of Faith divinely revealed, confirmed by divine signs and proposed by an infallible magisterium. This revelation gives us in the present life knowledge of the secrets of our heavenly Father, gives us wisdom inspired by the Holy Ghost, and as regards the future life promises direct beatific vision of the Divine essence—all which benefits exceed man’s natural desire: “It hath not entered into the heart of man to conceive what God has prepared for those who love Him” (1 Cor. ii. 9).

2° Natural hope of future happiness suggests expectation of help from God to lead a naturally good life, and natural happiness in the life to come. The Incarnation of the Word of God, Redemption, Eternal Glory are far beyond natural hope.

3° Natural inclination to love God above all things could never aspire to familiar friendship with God realised especially in Eucharistic Communion—pledge of eternal life. What more conformable to our aspirations and at the same time what more gratuitous? Herein appears the harmony which God alone can effect. Harmony is unity in diversity, and is greater the more intimate the union, the more marked the diversity. In the Eucharist there is absolute diversity between its utter gratuitousness and its profound conformity.

Supernatural differ from natural gifts of God, because of their gratuitousness, and differ from the ravings of false mysticism because of their conformity with natural reason. Hence Christ said to the Samaritan woman: “If thou didst know the gift of God, and who he is that saith to thee, Give me to drink; thou perhaps wouldst have asked of him, and he would have given thee living water … he that shall drink of the water that I will give him, shall not thirst for ever. But the water which I will give him, shall become in him a fountain of water springing up into life everlasting” (John iv. 10, 13, 14). St. Augustine wrote: “Thou hast made us for Thyself, and our hearts are unquiet until they find their rest in Thee” (Conf. Book I. c. 1).

So also the natural love of our fellowmen is far exceeded in Christian Faith, because our neighbour must be loved for God’s sake, so that our brethren may be with us members of the mystical body of Christ in this life, and participators with us in eternal glory hereafter.

4° Worship.

Internal worship in the religion of Christ is described as “adoration of God in Spirit and in truth.” Subordinate to internal is external worship. The supreme expression of external worship is the Sacrifice of the Mass. The Mass is the commemoration of the Sacrifice of the Cross, and the offering of Himself by Christ Our Lord as priest—a victim of infinite value. The sweetness of personality and mysteries of Christ are beautifully expressed in the prayer and hymns of the Church:

Jesus, the thought alone of Thee With sweetness fills my breast, But sweeter far it is to see And on Thy beauty feast.

Jesus, our hope when we repent, Sweet source of all our grace, Sole comfort in our banishment, O what when face to face!

No art, or eloquence of man Can tell the joys of love; Only the saints can understand What they in Jesus prove.

5° The inclination of our nature to virtue is not only satisfied but exalted in Christianity.

Christian prudence, directing all things to God and avoiding excessive solicitude for temporal things, infinitely exceeds not only worldly prudence founded on utilitarianism, but natural prudence which aims at natural virtue.

Christian justice is associated with Charity, and indefinitely raised by the association.

Christian fortitude draws not only upon the strength of nature, but likewise upon that of Divine Grace.

Christian temperance exceeds natural temperance which aims at the health of the body by bringing the body into subjection.

6° We desire happiness in the present life.

The gifts of the Holy Ghost make Christian virtues perfect and lead to lasting happiness.

The fruits of the Holy Ghost are so many guarantees of mental peace.

St. Paul’s exhortation is well known: “Rejoice in the Lord always; again I say to you, rejoice … may the peace of God, which surpasseth all understanding, keep your hearts and minds in Christ Jesus” (Philipp. iv. 4).

§ 2.—An External Criterion Intrinsic to Religion: Sublimity of the Teaching of Christ.

Art. 1.—Wonderful Harmony of Christian Teaching.

The essence of Sublimity—an aspect of beauty in its highest manifestation—lies in the union of elements notably diverse. Hence it is a sign of something beyond the reach of human achievement—of Divine origin in fact—if doctrine, proposed in the name of God, unites that which is highest and lowest, supernatural and natural, riches of Divine mercy and misery of the human race, things old and new, obscurity of mystery and withal wisdom accommodated to the intelligence of a child.

But this characteristic is apparent in (1) natural truths concerning God and man; (2) supernatural mysteries; (3) precepts and counsels; (4) the whole body of religious truths in harmonious development.

I.—Natural truths concerning God and man.

(A) Truths concerning God.

Major: Right reason teaches that there is one God, beginning and end of all things, self-existent, pure spirit, eternal, infinitely perfect, really and essentially distinct from the universe, most wise and provident, good, merciful, just legislator and rewarder.

Minor: But Christianity teaches all these truths explicitly, and more perfectly than other religions and philosophical systems.

Conclusion: Therefore Christianity teaches most perfectly all truths concerning God dictated by right reason.

The major is supported and justified by the “communis sensus hominum.” It is a statement of the principal truths of Natural Religion (Cf. “Principles of Christian Apologetics”: cc. III. and V.)

The minor is proved (i.e., Christianity teaches certain truths):

1° One God, infinitely perfect, exists.

“God is a Spirit” (John iv. 24), self-existent (Ex. iii. 14), immutable (James i. 17), eternal (Rom. xvi. 26), omnipresent (Matt. v. 34, 35), source of life (Acts xvii. 28), all-knowing (Matt. vi. 4; 1 John iii. 20), most wise (Rom. xi. 33), omnipotent (Matt. xix. 26; Eph. iii. 20), most free (Eph. i. 11; Rom. ix. 16), most holy (Matt. xix. 17; 1 John i. 5; ii. 12), most happy (Acts xvii. 25; 1 Tim. i. 11).

2° God is Creator; most provident, merciful, just Creator (Acts iv. 24; xiv. 14; Eph. iii. 9; John i. 3). The Christian doctrine of Creation is free from Pantheism, Dualism, Determinism.

God is Providence (Matt. vi. 26; 1 Peter v. 7). The Providence of God is concerned with every being and is opposed to Mahometan fatalism and Calvinistic pessimism. God is most just (Rom. ii. 6), most kind (Matt. vi. 26-30), most merciful (Luke xv. 20; Eph. ii. 4).

Thus Christian doctrine teaches all the Divine attributes without any compromise or diminution.

(B) Truths concerning man.

Major: Right reason teaches that man is mortal, has a soul which is spiritual and consequently immortal, a soul which is free, subject to the moral law founded on God as supreme legislator and rewarder.

Minor: But Christianity teaches these truths more perfectly than other religions and philosophical systems.

Conclusion: Therefore Christianity teaches all truths concerning man which are dictated by right reason.

Again the major is supposed and justified by the common consent of mankind—the “communis sensus hominum.”

The minor is proved:

Man is created in the image of God (Eph. iv. 24; Gen. i. 26; Wisdom ii. 23). Man is not made of body alone which men can kill (Matt. x. 28), but of a spiritual soul likewise, which God can consign to punishment (Matt. x. 28), which is called to a glorious life (Rom. viii. 18; 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8). Man was created to know God, love Him, keep His Commandments and attain to eternal life (John xvii. 3; 1 Tim. ii. 4; Matt. vi. 33; vii. 21; xxv. 46).

Christianity teaches these truths with certitude. And this fact gives moral certitude of the Divine origin of Christianity. Morally speaking, men cannot, without special help of God, know firmly, quickly, correctly the sum total of natural truths appertaining to Religion.

II.—Supernatural Mysteries.

The sublimity of Christian doctrine is shown by the fact that Supernatural mysteries, notwithstanding their obscurity, appear to us as the “light of life,” because of their conformity with the attributes of God naturally known, and with human aspirations. The element of sublimity resides in the intimate union of the life of God with the minds and hearts of men of good will, through the Redemption wrought by Christ.

1° Trinity.

The mystery of the Trinity is the highest and most obscure of all, but its obscurity has no element of absurdity or incoherence. In this mystery there is harmony and light but too powerful for the scrutiny of created intellect. God is one in nature and threefold in person. Theologians show the congruity and harmony of this mystery by a twofold principle:

(a) Supreme Good is essentially communicative.

(b) The higher the nature, the more intimate is its communication.

The word, which the human intellect conceives is intimate indeed, but contingent, mutable, imperfectly expressing the faculty whence it proceeds. The higher in the scale of being, the more intimate is vital action. In God, life is infinitely perfect and immanent, and the term of His knowledge is a communication of His whole nature, so that the Word which proceeds from Him, remains united to Him by numerical identity of nature. This communication is accomplished through the Divine intellect, but there is another procession whereby Father and Son give expression to their infinite mutual love, and communicate their whole being to the Holy Ghost.

2° Mystery of our elevation to the supernatural order.

The congruity of this elevation is shown (a) from the standpoint of human nature. Our knowledge of God gained through the study of creatures is imperfect and obscure, especially as regards compatibility of certain Divine attributes. Moreover on the part of man there is a natural desire (conditional and inefficacious) of seeing God essentially. The congruity is also shown (b) from the standpoint of God. It is characteristic of Him, who is Infinite Good, to communicate Himself in the most intimate way, namely by communication of His Divine life; (c) The mystery explains man’s imperfect state as to nature and grace. Having lost his perfection and original justice by original sin, man remains, and as St. Thomas explains (C. Gentes iv. c. 52) the sorrowful opposition between our present condition and our aspirations is a probable sign of original elevation.

3° Mystery of Original Sin.

“By the disobedience of one man many were made sinners” (Rom. v. 19).

Original sin is not voluntary through our personal will, but through the will of our first parent. It is not personal sin, but a “sin of human nature,” contracted by us inasmuch as we receive from our first parents human nature deprived of original justice, so that according to Eph. ii. 3 we are “by nature children of wrath.” Hence original sin consists essentially in the privation of original justice voluntary to us through the will of our first parents. The Catholic doctrine is midway between the extremes of Pelagianism, which denied original sin, and Lutheranism, which exaggerated its effects so as to destroy free-will.

The mystery, accepted in the sense of the Church, is not repugnant to reason.

(a) It is not repugnant from the standpoint of Divine justice.

Original sin is the privation of grace and preternatural gifts, i.e., of benefits not due to nature. The following example will elucidate the distinction between the supernatural and the preternatural: “A king gives to his ambassador certain powers necessary for his diplomatic duties. These powers are natural. If the king gives him further powers increasing his dignity and influence, but not superseding ambassadorial functions, these powers are ‘preternatural.’ Finally should the king share with him his royal prerogative, and make him adopted son and heir to his kingdom, such privileges would be ‘supernatural’” (Cf. Principles of Christian Apologetics, p. 168). God may give His grace to the human race on the condition that Adam, head of the race, should not sin. God may extend the heredity and solidarity as regards natural gifts which subsist between a father and his descendants to supernatural and gratuitous gifts.

(b) The mystery of original sin is not repugnant to Divine wisdom and goodness.

St. Thomas argues (IIIᵃ q 1 a 3 ad 3) God permitted evil that He might elicit therefrom greater good. “Where sin abounded, grace did more abound” (Rom. v. 20). In the blessing of the paschal candle, the words occur: “O felix culpa,” “O blessed fault which has merited for us so great a Redeemer!” “For if by one man’s offence death reigned through one: much more they who receive abundance of grace, and of the gift, and of justice, shall reign in life through one Jesus Christ” (Rom. v. 17).

Mankind suffers various penalties corporal and spiritual. Amongst corporal troubles are sickness and death; amongst spiritual is the weakness of reason. With probability one may argue that God intended the superior and nobler part of man to rule over his lower nature, and if this superior guiding power of the nobler element is not maintained there must have been fault.

(d) Traditions of various races support this belief, as, for instance, Hesiod’s narrative regarding Prometheus. Pascal writes that man without this mystery would offer a greater degree of incomprehensibility than the incomprehensibility of the mystery of man. In the same sense Bossuet wrote: “The impress of God rests upon man—an impress so strong that he cannot lose it, and so weak that he cannot follow it.”

4° Mysteries of Incarnation and Redemption.

These mysteries are remedies of both original and of personal sin.

(A) Incarnation.

The Divine Incarnation is the intimate union without confusion of the Divine nature and human nature in one person, so that Christ is truly God and truly man. Union of human soul and body in one person is a somewhat analogous case.

The possibility and congruity of the Incarnation are seen:

(a) From the standpoint of God.

Goodness is diffusive and Infinite Good—Summum Bonum—communicates Himself in the highest way. This He has done by uniting in one Person His Divine nature to a created nature.

It is congruous that Divine Mercy should rescue men from sin: “God so loved the world as to give His only-begotten Son, so that all who believe in Him should not perish, but have life everlasting” (John iii. 16). It is congruous also that Divine justice should exact suitable satisfaction for sin. Sin is a quasi-infinite offence, because of the dignity of Him who is offended, hence the satisfaction must have infinite efficacy.

(b) From the standpoint of man.

Personal union of human nature with God is not inconceivable. Personality is more perfect the more intimately it depends on God and rules over inferior things. Moral personality is stronger in a just man than in a man subject to human passion. St. Paul wrote: “With Christ I am nailed to the cross. I live now not I, but Christ liveth in me” (Gal. ii. 19, 20).

The most perfect union—union of Divine and human natures without confusion in the same person is realised in the Incarnation of the Word. The Incarnation is most effective for the Redemption of the human race: “Greater love than this no man hath that a man lay down his life for his friend.” In Christ we have the exemplar of virtue, and an efficacious remedy against pride and presumption.

(B) Redemption.

The mystery of Redemption was consummated on the Cross, and is commemorated in the Sacrifice of the Mass. “God commendeth his charity towards us, because, when as yet we were sinners, Christ died for us” (Rom. v. 8). “Christ suffered for us, leaving you an example that you should follow his steps” (1 Peter ii. 21). “You are bought with a great price: Glorify and bear God in your body” (1 Cor. vi. 20). “Christ delivered himself for us an oblation and a sacrifice to God for an odour of sweetness” (Eph. v. 2). “We were reconciled to God by the death of His Son” (Rom. v. 10).

On the Cross Infinite Justice and Infinite Mercy met, hence its sublimity and splendour.

The suitability of the Sacraments for the perfection of man in the principal acts of his individual and social life is obvious:

By Baptism spiritual life is received.

By Confirmation spiritual life is strengthened.

By the Eucharist spiritual life is nourished.

By Penance spiritual life is restored.

By Extreme Unction spiritual life is cleansed from the remains of sin.

By Matrimony spiritual life is extended.

By Holy Orders the human instruments of spiritual life are perpetuated.

The sublimity of Holy Communion is expressed by St. Thomas:

“The Bread of Angels becomes the bread of men.” There is a wonderful association of the Infinite Grandeur of God with the lowliest human misery and need:

“O res mirabilis: manducat Dominum Pauper servus et humilis!”

5° Mysteries of Future Life.

(A) Eternal Happiness.

Eternal happiness is described by Christ as the “kingdom of heaven” which the just will possess, in which the “clean of heart” shall see God. St. Paul and St. John write: “We shall see God face to face, as He is” (1 Cor. xiii. 12; 1 John iii. 2). All the aspirations of our nature shall be satisfied and more than satisfied: “It hath not entered into the heart of man to conceive what God has prepared for those who love Him” (1 Cor. ii. 9).

(B) Eternal Punishment.

Eternal punishment is for those who die impenitent, i.e., die in grave, wilful, and fully-conscious enmity with God. On such the sentence is pronounced: “Depart from Me, you cursed, into everlasting fire … into everlasting punishment” (Matt. xxv. 41, 46). Writing on this mystery St. Thomas notes:

(1) When an impenitent sinner dies, he remains irreparably in grave sin.

(2) The punishment is proportioned to the gravity of the fault, because sin is a quasi-infinite offence.

(3) God’s mercy is regulated by the order of wisdom, and cannot be extended to the unworthy.

(4) The penalty is not intended for correction of the condemned sinner, but for reparation of order violated.

The justice as well as the mercy of God is infinite, and both justice and mercy are founded on love. These truths are expressed in the stanza which Dante read on the gates of Hell:

“Guistizia mòsse il mio alto fattore: Fècemi la divina potestate La somme sapienza e il primo amore.”

The doctrine of purgatory, and the universal practice of praying for the dead, manifest both the justice and the mercy of God. Venial faults are atoned for, and souls are helped by the prayers of the living, as the living are helped by the Saints in heaven. Hence the association of the Church militant, triumphant and suffering—the doctrine of the Communion of Saints.

III.—Excellence of the Christian law and life.

The precepts of the Natural Law are contained in the Decalogue. St. Thomas (Iᵃ IIᵃᵉ q. 106-108) shews the superiority of the New as compared with the Old Law.

(a) The New Law is a law of grace—the grace of the Holy Ghost given through faith in Christ. St. Augustine notes that the Old Law was given extrinsically so that the wicked might be deterred from sin, the New Law was given intrinsically for their justification.

(b) The New Law is a law of love, inasmuch as the supreme motive of action, internal and external, must be the love of God.

(c) The New Law is concerned especially with interior acts: “Thou shalt love the Lord thy God”; “thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.” The only external acts which Christ enjoins are those necessary for the reception of the Sacraments. Ceremonial in the New is lighter than in the Old Law.

(d) The New Law contains “counsels” as well as “precepts.” Observance of the precepts is necessary for salvation. Adoption of the counsels enables one to obtain salvation with greater certainty and expedition. Hence the multitudes of men and women who observe the counsels of voluntary poverty, chastity and obedience.

No more perfect law can be conceived than the New Law, since its principle or source is Divine grace, its end or motive is love, its precepts, when observed, ensure salvation, and its counsels, when adopted, give opportunity for the exercise of heroic virtue.

Notes

The natural desire of future life is innate, whereas the natural desire of seeing God is elicited. ↩